o help choose
among job applicants or candidates for promotions, many employers use tests or other
selection devices such as educational requirements aimed at predicting who is likely
to do well in the relevant position. One risk of doing so is that such tests or
devices, although neutral on their face, may screen out a disproportionate number
of women, minorities or members of other protected groups. Upon learning that a
test would have such an effect, an employer wary of facing a discrimination suit
may be tempted not to use the test in deciding who to hire or promote.
On June 29, the U.S. Supreme Court held that such an
approach can easily backfire. In seeking to avoid unconscious discrimination against
some employees, an employer may intentionally discriminate against others. In
Ricci v. DeStefano, the court held that scrapping a test because a statistically
significant proportion of a particular race or sex did poorly on the test amounts
to intentional discrimination against those who did well on it, unless the employer
can show a “strong basis in evidence” for fearing that using the test would lead
to liability.
Employers who learn that a test or other selection device
has a discriminatory impact on some employees now find themselves between a rock
and a hard place. Using the test may lead to one kind of discrimination claim, while
discarding the test may lead to another. That makes it more important than ever
that employers think through the possible issues before using any test
or selection device in making employment decisions.
Two kinds of discrimination
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits two types
of employment discrimination based on race, color, national origin, sex and religion.
First, the law prohibits intentionally treating one employee better than another
because of such protected characteristics. This is called “disparate treatment”
discrimination. Second, the law prohibits unintentional discrimination that results
when an employer uses a test, selection device or practice that is neutral on its
face but has a disproportionate adverse impact on members of a protected group.
This is “disparate impact” discrimination. In the Ricci case, the court
addressed what happens when an employer may face both kinds of claims from different
groups of employees.
The court’s decision
The city of New Haven, Connecticut, used a written test
to help decide which firefighters would be eligible for certain promotions. In reviewing
the test results, the city discovered that the test had a statistically significant
adverse effect on African-Americans. Not only was the passing rate for black firefighters
only about half of what it was for whites, but none of the employees with top scores—the
only ones eligible for promotion under city rules—was black. Understandably, the
city worried that using the test would lead black employees to file, and probably
win, a suit alleging that the test had a discriminatory racial impact, so the city
decided not to use the test in deciding who could be promoted.
In what likely appeared to the city as a case of “damned
if you do, damned if you don’t,” it was then sued by 18 firefighters (17 white and
one Hispanic) who had done well on the test, alleging that the city had discriminated
against them based on race by refusing to use the test and thus denying them
a chance at promotions.
By a 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of those
non-black employees, holding that they had been subject to intentional race discrimination
by the city. The court acknowledged that the city’s test had a statistically significant
adverse effect on blacks, but said that alone did not justify throwing out the results
and thereby discriminating against white and Hispanic employees based on their race,
given that the city had taken reasonable steps to make sure that the test was job-related.
To justify discarding a test, the court held, an employer
must be able to show a “strong basis in evidence” that it will lose a disparate
impact suit brought by employees who would be screened out if the test were used.
Statistics alone are not enough. The employer must also present strong evidence
that it will not be able to show that its test was “job related and consistent with
business necessity,” or fend off a claim that it refused to use other methods that
would have had a less discriminatory impact. In effect, the court said that there
is only one way that an employer can avoid liability for disparate treatment discrimination
if it walks away from a test it has already given, based on concern about possible
liability for disparate impact discrimination. In such a case, the employer would
have to show that the test was unrelated to the job for which it was used or did
not serve an important business need, or that the employer had ignored ways of selecting
employees that would have met the employer’s needs with a less discriminatory effect.
What the case means for employers
If an employer gives a test or uses a selection device
and then discovers that it has a disproportionate adverse effect on members of a
protected group, it is caught on the horns of a dilemma. If the employer uses the
test, it may be sued by members of that group for “disparate impact” discrimination.
But if it decides not to use the test, it may be sued by those who did well on the
test for “disparate treatment” discrimination. After Ricci, an employer
facing the latter type of claim can prevail only by showing that its own test was
largely irrelevant to the job for which it was being used, that the test was not
closely aligned with the employer’s business needs, or that the employer rejected
less discriminatory ways of meeting those needs. But having chosen and used a test,
presumably based on some evidence that the test would accurately predict success
in a job, few employers will be able to meet that burden.
For that reason, it is more important than ever for
an employer to make a thorough evaluation of a test or other method of selecting
among employees before giving the test or using that method.
An employer must weigh whether the test or method may
have a disproportionate adverse effect on certain groups, whether other alternative
tests or methods are available that may have a less discriminatory impact, and—most
important—how accurate the test or method will be in correctly selecting those employees
who are best able to perform the relevant job. By taking those steps in advance,
employers will be best prepared to defend any resulting discrimination claim.
In particular, before administering a test or other
method of selecting among employees, an employer should:
- Consider whether the test or method is the best way
to measure the skills, knowledge and qualifications needed to succeed in the job.
- Do everything reasonably possible to make sure that
the test, its passing rate and its cutoff scores will not have a disparate impact
based on any protected characteristic. For instance, the employer may involve persons
of diverse backgrounds in developing the questions.
- Measure how employees who are currently succeeding
in the relevant job do on a proposed test. If they do not do well, it will be hard
to show that the test is valid.
- Before using any test recommended by a vendor, ask
the vendor these questions:
- Has the test been vetted for disparate impact based on sex, race, national origin and
other protected characteristics? If so, when and how? How confident are you that
the test will not have significant disparate impact if we use it?
- Do you
offer alternative tests that are equally valid but have less disparate impact?
- Has
the test been professionally validated in compliance with the
Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedure? If so, how did the jobs
for which the test was validated compare with the jobs for which we plan to use
it, in terms of skills, qualifications, required knowledge and responsibilities?
What studies have been done to measure the correlation between successful performance
on this test and successful performance on equivalent jobs?
- Do other
employers use the test by itself or in combination with other factors? If the latter,
what weight are test results given compared to the other factors?
- Has
the test been challenged as discriminatory by any government agency or employees? If so, what happened? How will you help us if that happens? Will your testing experts
testify at depositions or at trial? At what cost?
- If you give a test or use a selection device and discover
statistically significant disparate impact::
- Do not
adjust the test scores or change cutoff scores to deal with the problem, because
that is squarely prohibited by Title VII.
- Do not
throw out the results, or refuse to use the test or device, unless you are prepared
to show that you will lose a Title VII discrimination suit brought by those disfavored
by the test. Under Ricci, that is illegal discrimination.
- Recognize that the holding in this case applies not
just to employment tests, but to all policies or practices used to select among
employees, such as factors used in deciding who to terminate in a reduction in force.
By taking these steps, employers who use tests or other
selection devices can maximize their likelihood of navigating between both types
of discrimination claims.
Workforce Management Online, September 2009 --
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